OVERVIEW: The Behaviorist school of thought regarding the study and modification of human (and other animal) behavior has evolved through scientific research.  Over the years, Behavior Analysis has been known by a number of different terms such as behavior modification, behavioral intervention, behavioral treatment, contingency management, operant conditioning, learning theory, Skinnerian psychology, and others.  Today, the interventions based on this research based orientation have evolved into procedures that are referred to as "Applied Behavior Analysis".

 According to behaviorists, an individual's behavior (both appropriate and inappropriate) can be understood by considering principles of human behavior that have been identified and studied through research.  The following "laws of learning" have emerged from those research studies:
1. The "law of effect" states that people and animals tend to repeat behaviors that are followed by a desirable consequences, and tend not to repeat behaviors that result in undesirable outcomes.
2. All behavior (except for some biologically caused actions such as those associated with Turrette's syndrome and Lesch Nyhan disease) has been learned through interaction with one's environment (as opposed to emerging psychological drives) and continues to be displayed because it serves a useful purpose (either producing a benefit or avoiding a punishment).
3. The motivation for showing an action can be determined by counting or measuring the behavior while attending to the observable circumstances that occur before and after it.
4. Environments and situations can be designed so that they have beneficial effects on an individual's behavior.  Behaviors can be changed (created, strengthened, or eliminated) through the application of research validated interventions.
5."Learning" is evidenced by a change in observable behavior.

IMPORTANT TERMS
Antecedent (A) or Stimulus (S) - An event, occurring before a behavior, that activates it (e.g., The traffic light turns red, causing the driver of the car to step on the brake pedal).
Behavior (B) or Response (R) - The action that was activated by a stimulus (e.g., A person turns off the stove burner plate in response to hearing the whistling tea kettle).
Consequence (C) - The result that occurs when a behavior/response is displayed.
Unconditioned (UC) - Occurring without training or practice (e.g., A baby pricked by a diaper pin cries).
Conditioned (C) - Occurring because of training and practice that resulted in a desired outcome (e.g., The student raises his/her hand upon hearing the teacher ask a question.  This behavior has been found to gain the teacher's attention and approval.  It also avoids the instructor's criticism that comes when one calls out the answer.  Because it is not "natural" for humans to raise their hands when someone asks a question, this behavior is said to be trained or "conditioned").
Paired - Presenting two things at the same time.  Two things occurring at the same time are "paired" (e.g., A teacher pairs verbal praise with the presentation of a bite of a favorite food in hopes that the praise will become reinforcing to the child because it is associated with the food).
Extinction - The elimination of a behavior that results when it is ignored.  When a behavior no longer exists, it is referred to as being extinct (e.g., When staff members ignored the child's tantrums, the behavior initially increased, but then quickly ceased).
Discrimination - An individual is discriminating between similar conditioned stimuli (CS) when s/he offers different responses to each (e.g., a child says "Mommy" only to the woman who is his/her mother, even though other women look similar).
Generalization - Generalization has occurred when the conditioned response (CR) is now activated by a stimuli that is similar to the CS.  In other words, the behavior is displayed under similar circumstances (e.g., in another classroom, when another teacher is present, when a similarly worded direction is given).
Punishment - Any consequence or outcome that causes a behavior to be displayed less often.
Reinforcement - Any consequence or outcome that causes a behavior to be displayed more often.
Modeling - When a person emulates the behavior of another in an attempt to gain reinforcement, that person is "modeling" the observed action.

THE HISTORY OF BEHAVIORISM
 There have been two major schools of thought and study within the Behaviorist orientation.  The earlier "Classical Conditioning" school studied stimuli (events) and responses (reactions) to them.  The later "Operant Conditioning" school noted that in addition to a stimulus spurring a response, it was also important to attend to the consequence that followed the response.  The operant school, as with the earlier classical view focuses solely on observable actions displayed by individuals.  Emotions and thoughts are not considered in the analysis of behavior (as in the PsychoEducational approach) because they do not provide objective, observable data for evaluation.

OPERANT CONDITIONING - This later school of behaviorism (also known as reinforcement theory) emerged from the research of B.F. Skinner.  This school of thought and practice focuses on the effect of environmental consequences.  The term "operant" derives from Skinner's experiments in which rats and pigeons "operated" on the environment instead of being passive (as with Pavlov's dogs, Watson's Albert, and other subjects in classical conditioning experiments).

THE PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
1. Types of Consequences Used In ABA Procedures
 The outcome that results when one displays a specific behavior influences the likelihood of it occurring again.  There are four categories of consequences for actions.  Each one has a particular effect on the chances of a response occurring in the future when presented with a stimulus.
a. Positive reinforcement - Desirable (positively reinforcing) outcomes increase the likelihood of a response happening in the future.  It is important to note that the consequence must be viewed as desirable to the person receiving that consequence.  A consequence is not a "positive reinforcer" unless it increases the display of the behavior in the future.
b. Negative reinforcement (the avoidance of punishment) - If a person displays a behavior that avoids an impending punishment (or makes the punishment cease if it is already happening), there is great likelihood that the behavior will be shown again under similar circumstances.  The behavior is said to be negatively reinforced, in that it is reinforcing to avoid negative things.  If the fear or pain of being punished makes someone show a behavior to avoid or escape it, that behavior is negatively reinforced.
c. Punishment - If a consequence makes a behavior stop, that consequence is a "punisher".  It is important to note that punishment does not result in the learning of new behaviors.  The behavior being punished might cease around the punisher if the punishment is severe enough, but the behavior will probably continue to be shown when the punisher is not around (or aware).  For example, parents who spank their children often stop the behavior they are punishing.  However, they may find themselves spanking the child in the future for the same offence because the child has not learned an alternative behavior in the presence of a stimuli (certain environmental circumstances).
d. Ignoring -   People only repeat behaviors that bring benefits.  If a behavior fails to ever bring about a reward or benefit, the individual loses interest in displaying it.  It is likely to die out (extinguish) after awhile.  Ignoring a behavior decreases the likelihood of it happening in the future.  It is important to be sure that absolutely no reinforcement results from the display of that action.  Otherwise, it will continue.  Even if a behavior is effectively ignored, it will initially increase in frequency and intensity (a "behavioral burst") as the individual attempts to gain the reinforcement s/he is used to receiving.  However, the behavior will eventually become extinct if ignoring is continued.  Sometimes behaviors are "self reinforcing" (e.g., rocking back and forth, whistling) in that they feel good to the person.  Ignoring these behaviors will not result in extinction.  It is also important to completely ignore the attention seeking behavior.  Attending to it even once in a while, will continue it's occurrence, and perhaps even strengthen the behavior (see Schedules of Reinforcement below).

2. Schedules of Reinforcement
 "Schedules of reinforcement" refers to how often, consistently, or predictably a behavior is followed by a reinforcing consequence.  To fully maximize the impact of positive reinforcement, it is important to administer it in a precise manner.  The various arrangements for providing positive reinforcement have different purposes and effects.
a. Continuous - In a continuous schedule of reinforcement, a designated response to a stimulus receives reinforcement every time (or time period) that it is displayed.  This schedule is useful in creating and strengthening a new response (CR).
b. Fixed ratio (FR) - The fixed ratio schedule requires the individual to perform a set number of responses (e.g., completing addition problems on worksheets) to a stimulus (e.g., the teacher telling the student to start working on the addition problems) in order to gain reinforcement.  This schedule is often used after the continuous ratio schedule has strengthened a behavior.  Use of the FR schedule results in a high rate of responding.  As the responder becomes more capable, s/he will be required to show progressively more responses in order to obtain reinforcement.
c. Fixed duration (FD) - The duration version of the fixed schedules provides reinforcement after the desired behavior (e.g., being "on task") has been demonstrated for a certain period of time.
d. Fixed interval (FI) - The interval version of the fixed schedule provides reinforcement for the first desired behavior that occurs after a certain predetermined period of time elapses.  Research shows that the rate of responding increases as the moment for reinforcement nears.    This schedule is often used after the continuous interval schedule has strengthened a behavior.  It's use results in a high rate of responding.
e. Variable ratio (VR) - The VR schedule provides reinforcement after a predetermined, but constantly changing number of responses are displayed.  The  responder is unaware of the predetermined pattern of reinforcement.  S/he never knows how many responses must be shown to obtain reinforcement this time.  While appearing to be unpredictable to the responder, the reinforcement schedule averages to be a certain number of responses (which will increase in number as the responder becomes more capable at showing the response).  This schedule results in very high and consistent rates of response.
f. Variable duration (VD) - The amount of time that an individual must engage in the desired behavior in order to gain reinforcement changes unpredictably (to the individual).
g. Variable interval (VI) - In this schedule, the amount of time that must elapse before reinforcement is provided changes unpredictably (in the mind of the individual).  The exact times of possible reinforcement are predetermined.  While the schedule appears unpredictable to the responder, it averages to a certain length of time (which will increase in average time as the responder becomes more capable at showing the response).  This schedule results in low and consistent rates of response.

3. The Procedures of Applied Behavior Analysis
 Numerous interventions have been devised and scientifically verified as effective by behaviorists.  Below are some of the procedures used most often in schools and clinics.
a. Task analysis - Task analysis identifies the sequence of steps to be followed in order to fully display a complex, multi-step behavior (e.g., making a bed, riding the bus, completing a long division problem)
b. Chaining - In chaining, the individual is reinforced for displaying a certain number of the steps in a sequence of simple behaviors (identified via task analysis) that comprise a complex behavior
 Forward chaining - The individual completes an increasing number of steps in early part of
  the sequence of simple behaviors before another person completes that sequence.
 Backward chaining - Another person completes the earlier steps in the analyzed task before
  the individual completes an increasing number of steps at the end of the sequence.
 Total chaining - The individual completes all steps in the sequence each time with help
  (e.g., physical assistance, directions, hints, prompts) provided as needed
c. Manipulation of the antecedents and consequences - By identifying the antecedent (stimulus) to a behavior, one can prevent it's occurrence in hopes of stopping the appearance of the behavior (response).  For example, a teacher might change the seating of a talkative student, thus preventing the occurrence of the antecedent for the talking behavior; the nearby presence of a friend.  One might also attempt to activate a new behavior by presenting a stimuli/antecedent.  For example, a teacher might stimulate raising of a hand to answer a question by saying "What do we need to do if we know the answer?".  Of course, if the behavior is to be strengthened and maintained, the teacher will have to assure that the new behavior is followed by a desirable (to the student) consequence.
d. Shaping - Also known as "successive approximation", it is a plan that identifies responses that become sequentially more similar to a final desired response.  The individual is reinforced for displaying responses that become progressively closer to the identified desired behavior.  Once a designated behavior is being regularly shown in response to the stimulus, a new and more advanced behavior is required in order to receive reinforcement.  Eventually, the individual displays the complex final behavior.
e. Differential Reinforcement - The DR procedures involve the use of positive reinforcement (instead of punishment) to eliminate undesirable behaviors.  Only the desired behavior is reinforced.
  Differential reinforcement of lower rates of behavior (DRL) - Reinforcement is presented only if the individual displays the undesirable behavior fewer times than previously observed (as determined by behavioral recording assessment)
 Differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO) - Reinforcement is presented if the
   individual withholds undesirable behavior for a time period that is longer than
   usual (as determined by behavioral recording assessment)
 Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) - Reinforcement is presented for
   displaying a designated response that prevents the occurrence of the undesirable
   behavior.  In other words, the reinforced behavior is one that can not be
   demonstrated at the same time as the undesirable action.  By displaying the
   desired behavior, the undesirable one is "blocked" or prevented from occurring.
 Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - DRA is similar to DRI in that an
   substitute behavior for the undesirable one is reinforced.  However, unlike DRI,
   DRA does not promote an incompatible behavior.  DRA focuses on creating a more
   appropriate behavioral response.
f. Response cost - demonstration of an inappropriate behavior results in a penalty (e.g., a token taken away from one's pile of earned tokens)
g. Self-evaluation - In this procedure, the individual keeps track of how often a behavior is displayed (self monitoring).  If a goal is met, the person provides him/herself with some desirable thing (self reinforcement).
h. Time-out - The removal reinforcement when an undesirable behavior is demonstrated.  In a common form, an individual is taken from an environment that is believed to be reinforcing the undesirable behavior, to one where no reinforcement is available.
i. Token/Point systems - The individual is given a reinforcer (an item or point) if a behavioral goal is met.  The items or points can later be traded for desired objects or privileges.

4. ASSESSMENT OF BEHAVIOR
 Behaviorists have devised methods for determining and verifying the cause of a particular behavior.  By determining the reason for the display of an aberrant behavior, effective interventions can be selected.
a. Behavioral Recording - These procedures record the levels at which the behavior is occurring.  Prior to engaging in the measurement of a behavior, the observer must precisely pinpoint and define that behavior in order to ensure that others would agree that the behavior is or is not occurring at a particular moment.  Recording the levels of a behavior before implementing an intervention is known as "taking baseline data".  Once the intervention is implemented, recording continues.  By continuing to monitor the behavior and comparing the results with earlier observations, the observer can determine if the intervention is having an effect.  There are many forms of behavioral recording.  Below are some of the more commonly used ones.
 Frequency (event) recording - This type of recording involves counting the number of times
  that a short-lived behavior occurs during a certain time period.  The data is expressed as
  the number of times the behavior happened during a standard time interval (i.e., minute,
  hour, day), or  average amount of time that passed between displays of the behavior.
 Permanent product recording - This variation of frequency recording involves counting the
  number of  items produced/created (e.g., correctly spelled words correct, multiplication
  problems completed, widgets made).  Results are expressed as the number of constructed
  items per standard  time interval (i.e., minute, hour, day), or average amount of time that
  passed between completion of items.
 Interval recording - The observer divides the observation period into equal intervals, and
  then records whether the behavior occurred at any time during that period.
 Total interval recording - In this type of interval recording, the target behavior must be
 demonstrated for the full duration of an interval in order for the observer to record that the
 behavior occurred.
 Time sampling - This type of recording is a variation on interval recording in which the
 behavior is noted only if it occurs after the end of a designated time period.
 Duration recording - This procedure involves observing the length of time that a behavior is
 displayed.  Results are expressed as the percentage of an observation period that the
  behavior was occurring, or the average length of time of displays of the behavior.
  Latency recording - A variation of duration recording in which the observer notes the time
  that elapses between a stimulus and a response.
 Momentary time sampling (MTS) - This version of behavior recording determines if a
  behavior is being displayed at predetermined moments.  The observer preselects times
  (i.e., moments) when s/he will observe the individual to see if the behavior is occurring.
  The observer only notes if the behavior is happening at the exact moment of the observation,
  not before or after that moment.  The findings are expressed in the percentage of
  moments that the behavior was occurring.  This procedure is used as a "short cut"
  method for estimating the duration of a behavior.
 Inter-observer agreement - A mathematical procedure used for determining how
  consistently observers agree or disagree on whether a certain behavior was displayed.

b. Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC) analysis - Also known as "three term contingency" or the "A-B-Cs of Behavior", in this investigatory procedure the observer: keeps a log of which events or "antecedents" (A)  preceded the individual's response; the behavior itself (B); and what events/consequences followed that response (C).  The A is believed to be the stimulus for the behavior (B) to appear.  The C is believed to be the reason for the continuation of the behavior.

Dr. Mac=s Amazing Behavior Management Advice Site. http://www.behavioradvisor.com

 The Behavior Analyst Certification Board web site at http://www.bacb.com/

Maag, J.W. (2004). Behavior management: From theoretical implications to practical applications (2^nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning.

Martin, G., & Pear, J. (2003). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it (7^th ed.).  Columbus, OH: Prentice‑Hall Publishers.

Rhode, G., Jenson, W.R., & Reavis, H.K. (1992). The Tough Kid Book.   Longmont, CO:Sopris Press.

Author: Tom McIntyre At www.BehaviorAdvisor.com 8/20/06